Blog – Page 3 – ENG 281.05 Fall 16

Hayles Definition Assignment

Some of the theory we will read in this course contains very technical, specific terminology that must be defined in order to understand the content. To develop a base for our reading and discussion, we will define terms used in How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics by Katherine Hayles in order to create a crowdsourced index to reference through the semester. Each of you will be assigned one of the following terms. For this assignment you should define this term based on your reading of Hayles and outside information you gather and determine to be relevant in this context. Please provide hyperlinked citations to any outside information you quote, paraphrase, or summarize.

Write your definition separately in your journal. Then, edit this post and add your definition in the designated area before class time on 11/1. Remember to click publish.

***Please do not edit any entry but the one you were assigned!

Autopoietic	The dictionary defines autopoietic as “the property of a living system that allows it to maintain and renew itself by regulating its composition and conserving its boundaries.” After reading How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics I have concluded that the definition of autopoietic, according to Hayles, is a system that is self made and is directly correlated to ones environment. Hayles states that “In the autopoietic view, no information crosses the boundary separating the system from its environment. We do not see a world “out there” that exists apart from us. Rather, we see only what our systemic organization allows us to see. The environment merely triggers changes determined by the system’s own structural properties” (17-18) . I interpreted this as the system is our way of life and we aren’t effected by the things that happen out side of our environment but only by the things that directly relate to our environments. For example, the Syrian refugee crisis is something in the world “out there” and that information does not affect our systems because our environment is not directly related.
Celluar Automata	According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, cellular automata are composed of cells or atoms that are defined as, “discrete, abstract computational systems that have proved useful both as general models of complexity and as more specific representations of non-linear dynamics in a variety of scientific fields.” Similarly, in the book, How We Become Posthuman, by Katherine Hayles, cellular automata are defined as, “elementary units that can occupy two states: on or off. Although the jury is still out on the cellular automata model, it may indeed prove to be a robust way to understand reality” (11). Both of these definitions explain cellular automata as having the capability to recreate/model certain complex systems by being “implemented in physical structures” (Stanford Encyclopedia). It is also said, in Hayles book, that the theories that are embedded within the cellular automata, “encourage a comparable fantasy – that because we are essentially information, we can do away with the body” (12). In my opinion this is stating that the human body could potentially be eliminated with this model because we are technically information ourselves, so there is no use for the body itself; “information is given the dominant position and materiality runs a distant second” (12). Overall, the information within us and of which creates us, overrules the body. Therefore, although this word is difficult to understand, this is what I have concluded based upon the text by Hayles and the definition provided by the Stanford Encyclopedia.
Cybernetics	The dictionary definition of cybernetics is the scientific study of how people, animals, and machines control and communicate information. Based on chapter 1 of How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics, my definition is the study of the communication and processing of information in humans and machines. Hayles discusses that “cybernetics signaled that three powerful actors-information, control, and communication-were now operating jointly to bring about an unprecedented synthesis of the organic and the mechanical” (8). Cybernetics looks at how information, control and communication work together simultaneously in humans and machines and how they are similar. The chapter also goes in depth in the history of cybernetics and how it has changed in waves, seen in figure 1 on page 16. Cybernetics is the main concept and most of what is discussed in the chapter falls under this concept.
Cyborg	A cyborg is, simply put, a hybrid of human and machine, with technological modifications made to the human to make them superior. Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines a cyborg as (1) “a person whose body contains mechanical or electrical devices and whose abilities are greater than the abilities of normal humans” or (2) “a bionic human”. In the context of How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics, the cyborg is the definition of posthumanism, it being the next step of human evolution with assistance from the use of technologies. The author mentions in the text how Hans Moravec can replicate human emotion, making it “that machines can, for all practical purposes, become human beings. You are the cyborg, and the cyborg is you.” (Hayles xii)
Embodiment	According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, Embodiment is defined as “Someone or something that is a perfect representative or example of a quality, idea, etc”. In her book, “How We Became Posthuman”, Hayles uses this term to describe how there is no exact or ideal form information; the form that information now takes is more flexible (Hayles 2). She describes information as a pattern rather than tied to a particular concrete idea. This in turn allows information to be free from the materialistic world (Hayles 13). In summary, Hayles claims that there is no embodiment or exact/ideal form of information; this allows information to be free and not restrained or constricted by society.
Epistemology	Epistemology is defined in the dictionary as branch of philosophy that investigates the origin, nature, methods, and limits of Human knowledge. In regards to Katherine Hayles’ “How we became Post human,” I believe that it elaborates on this definition. Hayles’ piece investigates the boundaries in which humans have crossed to now be labeled as post human. She gives way to the ideology that we as humans have always been networked and connected through others and that we are always connected to cyborgism in one way or another. Epistemology in this article can be defined as the level of understanding one has of the extent of human limitations and knowledge among other things.
Feedback Loop	Definition provided by http://lexicon.ft.com/: Used in economics to refer to as a situation where part of the output of situations is used for a new input. An example of positive feedback loop is success feeds success. In Chapter 1 pg. 9 Feedback Loop was described as “The idea of the feedback loop implies that the subject are up for grabs, since feedback loops can flow only within the subject but also between the subject and the environment.” My interpretation of this is Feedback Loop is similar to a cycle, and the output will be the same from start to finish. It is the process that can change. A website that gave a better explanation was www.think.org. The example the website provided was, “For example, the work output of a population can increase the goods and services available to that population, which can increase the average life expectancy, which can increase the population, which can increase the work output still more, and the loop starts all over again. ” How I connected this definition to the essay, How we Became Posthuman by N. Katherine Hayles was on pg. 12 the author mentions “Focus on how information lost its body. If my nightmare is a culture inhabited by posthumans who regard their bodies as fashion accessory rather than the ground of being, my dream……embrace the possibilities of information technologies without being seduced with fantasies.” I viewed this as a negative feedback loop. Since the information that enters out mind is the output, but the process (what we do with info) is what can make the Feedback Loop positive or negative. In the essay the author explains how other influences disrupts the process of that information.
Homeostasis	My definition of Homeostasis is the status of something that stays the same and doesn’t fluctuate. According to Dictionary.com homeostasis is ” the tendency of a system, especially the physiological system of higher animals, to maintain internal stability, owing to the coordinated response of its parts to any situation or stimulus that would tend to disturb its normal condition or function.” I couldn’t find where Hayles defines homeostasis but in the prologue she talks about homosexuality. I think Hayles maybe reffering to Society staying the same about their opinion on homosexuality.
Ontology	In my own words, a sound definition for “ontology” would be to describe it as such: The study/theory of existence and being. Basically, ontology is the fancy word for the study of what you ponder when having an existential crisis. Merriam-Webster defines ontology as “a particular theory about the nature of being or the kinds of things that have existence.” While Katherine Hayles doesn’t outright mention ontology in the first chapter of How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics, she touches upon this study of existence by tying it back to the posthuman, claiming, “In the posthuman, there are no essential differences or absolute demarcations between bodily existence and computer simulation, cybernetic mechanism and biological organism, robot teleology and human goals” (3). Hayles also explores the statement that says, “The human essence is freedom from the wills of others” (3). She then uses the word “ontological” itself on page 24 when speaking of Philip K. Dick’s novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, saying, “[Dick] understands that cybernetics radically destabilizes the ontological foundations of what counts as human.” Ontology, then, is a questioning of existence, exploring the possibilities about what it means to simply “be.”
Posthumanism	The dictionary definition of Posthumanism is:”The idea that humanity can be transformed, transcended, or eliminated either by technological advances or the evolutionary process; artistic, scientific, or philosophical practice which reflects this belief.” (oxford dictionary). This definition is very much the same as the one that Hayles gives in, How We Become Posthuman. Hayles defines posthumanism as the view that consciousness is “the seat” of human identity. Meaning as long as the organism contains conscious thought it is human. We create posthumans because the body is the “original prosthesis” that should be configured to be integrated with “intelligent machines” to create the posthuman subject. Posthumanism is the belief in a “amalgam”, a mixture or blend of human and machine to create superior man or being. Dictionary definition Is the view of information over biological matter which considers consciousness as the base of human life, and recognizes the body as a prothesis that subjects learn to manipulate and continue to change by adding other prothesis to it, called an amalgam. Most importantly and the base of this view, is that the body is seen as intended to be combined with intelligent machines. This view also gets rid of the desire of possession, the need for embodiment to be considered human and the meaning of freedom.
Reflexivity	Reflexivity is an thing being changed and adapting because it is reacting to stimuli. In How We Become Posthuman, it is described as “the movement whereby that which has been used to generate a system is made, through a changed perspective, to become part of the system it generates” (8). What I take from this definition is that a certain object/thing is learning to adapt because of stimuli it receives, and becomes a better version of itself.
Seriation	The definition of Seriation from Dictionary.com is “the arrangement of a collection of artifacts into a chronological sequence.” The author used the example of lamps that to described how their use and properties changed over time. Beginning with candle wicks to lamps becoming electronic with lightbulbs. Normally used as a chart, seriation is like a timeline of an artifact and how it changed over time.
Skeuomorphs	Hayles defines a skeuomorph as “a design feature that is no longer functional in itself but refers back to a feature that was functional at an earlier time” (Posthuman 24). She uses the dashboard of her Toyota Camry saying that it is covered in vinyl mold to simulate stiching but that simulated stitching is actually fabric from an older model just with a different look. Skeuomophism is a big part of our evolution of technology because it has modernized things and made them more resourceful. Dictionary Definition: An object or feature that imitates the design of a similar artifact made from another material.
Teleology	The study of evidences of design in nature. An example of teleology would be if one describes things in terms of their apparent purpose, or goal. On page 3, Hayes describes teleology only in terms of their sense of purpose: “In the post human, there are no essential differences or absolute demarcations between bodily existence and computer simulation, cybernetic mechanism and biological organism, robot teleology and human goals” (Hayes 3).
Virtuality	Hayles gives virtuality the “strategic definition” of “the cultural perception that material objects are interpenetrated by information patterns.” Essentially, she is saying that it’s the idea that information affects the way material objects function. This is confirmed when she gives the example of the computer being programmed to play ping-pong. She describes it as a cultural perception to demonstrate what a widespread and generally accepted idea this is.

Midterm: What Makes Us Human?

Technology is an ever-growing and imperative part of today’s society and culture. Philip K. Dick’s Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep, is a thought-provoking novel that highlights the ideology behind using and misusing the technology that is created by humans. The novel’s protagonist Rick Deckard, is a bounty hunter who kills androids. Given that these androids are killed based upon the fact that they are machines lacking empathy, one would also have to give thought as to whether humans today can be considered as simply human or whether there is some matter of cyborg within all of us given how reliant we are upon technology. Our dependency on the latest technological innovations ranging from the cell phone to modern medicine opens a broader level of thinking to the possibility that humans would be unable to survive if the technology we overuse today were unavailable to us at any given point. Have humans evolved into a generation so consumed by modern machinery that we ourselves have crossed a boundary in which the ability to empathize is no longer enough to serve as the only distinction between humans and the androids that Rick kills? Essentially, I believe that this is enough. Regardless of how far humans progress with the latest technology, as long as humans alone remain in control of their identity, which largely involves the ability to empathize with others and feel emotions, I believe that that is what makes us human; the ability to feel emotions and empathize with others.

The development of technology has increased at an alarming rate throughout the 21^st century. In the post-apocalyptic time period of Dick’s novel, technology has developed so much so that Rick and his wife Iran are able to “dial in their emotions” using their Penfield device (Dick, 3). In some ways this idea of being able to control one’s emotions at will provokes the topic of programming. Seeing as there is nothing naturally occurring from an android, it is ironic that Rick and Iran also program themselves to feel the emotions they do, leaving no room for natural thought and feeling. Our current society and culture also promote the same level of submission from humans to technology. For instance, Donna Harraway’s A Cyborg Manifesto places emphasis partly on the relationship boundary between organism and machine. This emphasis is substantiated by her belief that very little material is still deemed “natural” in today’s society given how dependent humans find themselves upon technological innovations (Harraway, 300). Granted such innovations have helped improve the modern world, there are a plethora of “natural” materials that have lost its authenticity due to our technology dependent culture. For example, Harraway states that even the natural process of reproduction can now be halted and prevented through technological means such as the use of protection (Harraway, 301). However, while many may find a human’s reliance upon new innovations as bothersome, the evolution of time and environment calls for such reform in regards to the safety and practicality of human life and preservation. The distinction between humans and androids lie with the reality that no matter how dependent we may find ourselves upon technology, what makes us human is our identity: the ability to empathize.

This ability to empathize was the key differentiation between android and human in Dick’s novel as well. Referring to Chapter 18, where Isidore found the spider which was thought to be extinct, the androids suggested cutting off its legs. Even as Isidore pleaded with them to not harm the creature they continued to do so (Dick, 206). This lack of empathy was also shown as Rachael killed Rick and Iran’s goat. Although Rachael was manipulating Rick the whole time by seducing him in order to prevent him from killing more androids, as soon as she saw the plan had failed, Rachael did what humans in Dick’s novel regarded as the ultimate act of evil: killing animals. “Rick I have to tell you something… the goat is dead…[s]omeone came here, got the goat out of its cage, and dragged it to the edge of the roof… [and pushed it off],” (Dick, 226). As Iran informed Rick that their goat was dead, Rick slowly began to realize that Iran’s description of the woman who killed their goat was Rachael. The disability to feel no remorse or emotion regarding the actions they commit separate humans from androids. This is what separates us from the technology that we use every day. Although humans are reliant upon it, natural emotion and feeling and personality all come from within, contrary to what occurs in Dick’s novel. This remains as the common attribute to an individual’s personality, thus giving them identity. Ultimately, Rick ended up hating what he did for a living due to the fact that he began empathizing with androids. This empathy was never prevalent amongst any of the androids because they were not programmed to empathize.

Stanford’s Encyclopedia of Philosophy recently published an article discussing the human ability to empathize called Empathy written by Strueber. As Strueber continues to analyze the depth of empathy found within humans, she refers to Batson’s various experiments on the matter. “Batson assumes… that empathy/sympathy can be manipulated either by manipulating the perceived similarity between subjects and targets or by manipulating the perspective taking attitude of the subjects… according to these assumptions [empathy] can be increased by enhancing the perceived similarity between subject and target or by asking the subject to imagine how the observed person would feel in his or her situation rather than asking the subject to attend carefully to the information provided,” (Stotland, 1969). Batson’s studies prove that empathy is a defining trait of humanism. No matter how engrossed an individual may find themselves with the technology available to them, the concept of conforming to a matter of cyborg will not be possible given that our identity and individuality lies within our power to feel and experience the pain, happiness, sadness, etc. of others.

Personally, I find our increased use of technology to act as a catalyst in further developing emotions and empathy for others. For instance, social media remains as an outlet in which voices and opinions are heard. In this digital age, our use of technology to access social media is a direct reflection of our individual self-identifying traits as humans. The use of high speed internet is why people around the world can connect with each other to make positive changes. Mission trips to third world countries suffering from civil war and poverty, charitable funds and organization, community outreach programs, and various other programs are created by humans through the use of technology. Thus, although we may be overshadowed by the technology surrounding us, what makes us human is the ability to control the technology we create to make a positive change that further confirms our own individual identity. This identity is found through the human ability to empathize and make an impact through the natural emotions we feel.

The new technological era that came with the dawn of the 21^st century is an ever-growing fast paced culture that will only continue to grow and further develop. One will not be able to tell whether in the future new technology will be created that will program empathy and other emotions into new inventions. However, until this time, it is safe to assume that no matter how far humans consume themselves with the latest technological devices available, our ability to feel naturally occurring emotions and empathize with others provides us with identity and purpose thus, distinguishing us as humans.

Work Cited

Stueber, Karsten, “Empathy”,The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL http://plaoto.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/empathy/
Dick, Philip K. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?p.: Del Ray, 1968. Print.
Harraway, Donna M. “A Cyborg Manifesto.” (n.d.): n. pag. The Cybercultures Reader. Routledge, 2000. Web.

Does It Take Empathy To Be Considered Human?

The physical similarities between humans and androids are quite plain. Both of them are capable of thinking and acting upon people’s will. Yet we are always reminding ourselves of the obvious. In the end, we just are not the same. Because androids lack empathy and they are not capable of producing emotions the same way we humans advocate them. Some take this argument to mean that we actually have much more in common with mammals than androids despite our physical resemblance. That is because both humans and mammals are both subject of our cultural values: sex, menstruation, pregnancy, birth, feeding, defecation, urination, bleeding, illness, and dying, traits where that androids are incapable of doing. But androids have higher standards of critical thinking, they are deemed superior to the mammal. Because we humans are capable of all the things listed that we have in common with mammals and are also capable of critical thinking, we place our species as the highest authority. Therefore, we, as a society, would deem it perfectly normal to terminate an android. And because the android is not capable of having human emotions, there is no case for a crime to be had. One could simply commit even the most heinous crimes against an android and not found guilty of murder on any case. Also, since the android is a product of the human, the android is designated as property and does not retain any reasonable right. But we should accept that there are those who would argue that androids are, in fact, capable of being side-by-side with humans. Proponents of the idea that androids and humans are not all that different tend to point to human history, as well as how the process of empathy works. Here, we will use the Philip K. Dick novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? to gain a deeper understanding of what it means to be human.

Even though the obvious answer as to why humans are justified in destroying an android is that we are the ones who have two arms, two legs, a body, and a brain that can do math, understand language, and work a computer. Yet, this does not quite hold up when you point to human history. Look specifically at colonial times. Not even 200 years ago, a vast majority of Europeans and Americans considered Africans to be less than human and therefore had no empathy towards them. Why, because most of them thought they lacked empathy, even though they still had two arms, two legs, a body, and a brain which, as time has proven us wrong, can do math, understand language, and work a computer. Even in the present, there are plenty of us that act as though people who live in different countries or lower lifestyles are deemed less than human. Many would argue today that empathy is a topic that cannot be taught in schools since humans generally are not fully empathic in their everyday lives. People who work in a city usually pass by homeless people without handing them money, often because they are too rushed to get to work on time. But the counterargument is literature, since fiction focuses on the psychology of characters and their relationships. The fiction genre helps the reader imagine the characters’ introspective dialogues, which in turn carries over into their psychology in the real world especially since it is full of problematic individuals that contain inner lives some might deem complicated. After all, most humans would agree that Harper Lee delved into what it takes to be empathic in To Kill a Mockingbird: “You never really understand another person until you consider things from his point of view – until you climb inside of his skin and walk around in it”. Thus reading can be a valuable influence on people’s sociability. Philip K. Dick’s novel offers a parallel between the relationship between whites and blacks in colonial times and the relationship between humans and androids in its futuristic setting.

In the novel, androids are deemed as property and do not hold any rights. The reason for this is because they supposedly lack empathy, which is the main theme of the novel and the crux of Dick’s metaphysical reflection on the meaning of life. Humans are taught to express no empathy towards the androids, which may have caused them to possess fewer feelings in general, something they are fighting to preserve. Each and every character deals with what it means to be empathetic and whether that allows someone to be valued as a living thing. Deckard hates his electric sheep only because he believes it cannot feel any love for him even though he cares for it. This feeling allows Deckard to perform his work as a bounty hunter because he is of the prominent belief that androids are incapable of true human emotion and are not worthy of life in a society in which life is the highest ideal. He even notes early on that herbivores or omnivores are the only creatures with the empathetic impulse and that empathy is what allows humanity to survive. John Isidore, the most empathic character in the novel, on the other hand, has an incredible sense of empathy for the androids. Not just because he finally has someone to talk to when the escaped androids move into his apartment, but because to him it’s clear that the androids strive for freedom so that they can live their own lives like humans are free to do. Since the androids killed their masters, the androids are seemingly capable of understanding the concept of freedom. But later on in the story, their beliefs are challenged.

Deckard soon learns that androids can, in fact, be capable of empathy and humans may be able to be devoid of empathy upon his encounter with Phil Resch who enjoys killing simply for killing’s sake; causing a severe shift in Rick’s understanding even of himself. Rick finds that the lines between what one can call living or what once can call not living are blurred. Androids find their empathetic abilities with each other just as humans find the ability to be empathetic in a collective group. Humans are also capable of a loss of empathy. Whereas John becomes horrified that the androids show disrespect towards a spider, which humans value greatly after all living things nearly became extinct in World War Terminus. The fact that androids tarnished something that humans greatly value shakes Isidore’s empathy for the androids heavily. Such concern for animals would seem to distinguish the humans from the androids to be sure, given the way in which they torture the poor spider, but there is nothing essentially human about such a caring attitude.

Dick’s science fiction is not deeply rooted in philosophy. He was interested, from the time that he read Plato when he attended Berkeley High School, in the core problem of philosophy: Is the world as it appears, or is it a mere appearance? Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? can be seen as a product of the author’s skepticism about the apparent world. For the novel imagines a world in which androids and humans are apparently the same, so that much of the novel is concerned with the problem of telling them apart from reality. That is because the implication of the novel is that the distinction between the two kinds of being, android and human will eventually become if not unreliable then at least undetectable. That can mean robots are very much like humans after all. But it can also mean that humans are very like robots.

The ability to empathize is imagined as being an exclusively human faculty. The Voight-Kampf Test is designed to determine whether the tested subject is an android look for an empathic response to questions that typically involve the mistreatment of animals. The reliability of the test depends on human attachment to animal life following a war that caused mass extinctions. With living animals harder to find, humans grew more and more fond even for living organisms such as toads and ostriches, chickens, sheep, even spiders. This love of animals is linked to the religion of Mercerism, which is believed to be some kind of cosmic entity, one apparently exposed as a fraud by Buster Friendly, a popular TV host. But to Rick and John Isidore, Mercer is actually neither a cosmic entity nor a mere fraud. Furthermore, we are told of other humans who might make the task of distinguishing between human and android quite difficult. These humans who might be mistaken for androids if given the empathy test exhibit what is called a flattening of affect; they have a diminished empathic faculty, which means that they are humans with some form of mental disorder such as schizophrenia. If they were stopped by a routine police check, they could very well be mistaken for androids and be killed mistakenly. But this is only one of the more obvious ways in which Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? broaches the problem of determining the difference between human and android. There is also the question of Deckard’s response to the problem of empathy. He starts to feel empathy for the android Luba Luft, and feels nothing for Phil Resch. At one point, the novel briefly raises the possibility of Deckard himself being an android, when Luba asks him if he has taken the empathy test. But the novel does not really pursue this possibility; it does not so much question whether Deckard is human as much as it questions whether the fact that he is biologically human is enough to distinguish him. The androids lack empathy, but they do not seem to be wholly without any emotional responses in the novel, and they do not seem to be wholly without desire either. The answer to the question that the title poses is unclear. When the last three survivors meet at Isidore’s apartment, their conversation is full of passion because they experience a range of emotions, including joy, shock, and fear. Yet, Isidore senses that there is something different, something “peculiar” or “malign” about these characters. It means that in the end, we do not know if the androids experience desire after all. More important still in terms of the difference between androids and humans is the fact that the androids’ lack of empathy is not something that androids inherently lack. Quite the opposite. It’s the result of a built-in defect.

The built-in defect is a lack of empathic ability. This is important because it means the one attribute in the novel on which the distinction between human and android is based, even it is a reliable distinction for the moment, is only artificially missing from androids. If the defect were not created, the implication is that the androids would have an empathic faculty just as healthy humans do. So the deprived condition of the androids cannot be said to be a natural condition. And if that is the case, then the distinction between android and human cannot be said to be a natural distinction too. Consider the novel’s opening. We find human characters having an argument about the use of the Penfield artificial brain stimulator. Humans might want to call androids artificial, and to see their lack of empathy as a measure of their distance from being human, but with the brain stimulator, one can never know if the emotional responses of even apparent human characters are natural or just a product of artificial stimulation.

Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? looks at the issues of human versus non-human and hypothesizes that empathy, not language or the number of arms and legs, is the key trait determining humanity. But how far does that humanity extend? Is Phil Resch still human despite his lack of empathy? Is Luba Luft a human in her ability to empathize through art despite being born factory-made chattel? Deep down, we really believe that the people that make our products are full human and act as though they are. For if we do not, that makes us less than full human.

WORKS CITED

Dick, Philip K. Blade Runner: (Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep). New York: Del Rey, 1996. Print
Bury, Liz. “Reading Literary Fiction Improves Empathy, Study Finds.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 2013. Web.
Krznaric, Roman. “Can You Teach People to Have Empathy?” BBC News. N.p., 29 June 2015. Web.
Paulsen, Kyle. “Is Empathy Only A Human Ability? – Kyle Paulsen.” Kyle Paulson. Web.
Chiaet, Julianne. “Novel Finding: Reading Literary Fiction Improves Empathy.” Scientific American. Springer Nature, 04 Oct. 2013. Web.
Anonymous “The Meaning of Being Human In Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? And Blade Runner (I)” Essay Judge. N.p., 1970. Web.

What Defines Our Humanity?

There can be multiple answers to the question of what defines our humanity. Is it our superior intelligence compared to different species? Is it our physical characteristics? Or is it our development and changes throughout the course of history? Phillip K. Dick’s novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep analyzes the question of what makes us human. The novel centers around the protagonist Rick Deckard, a bounty hunter who is faced with the challenge of killing six androids, a species who are believed to lack empathy and thus a threat to humans. Throughout the novel, however, Rick begins to develop empathy for androids, especially those who have not committed any crime(s). There is a possibility that Phillip K. Dick’s novel and Rick Deckard’s develop of empathy for androids can be best understood with police brutality among African Americans and the phrase “Black Lives Matter”.

In Dick’s novel, Rick Deckard initially does not have any empathy for androids he kills or “retires” due to believing that they lack empathy themselves. Throughout the novel, however, readers will notice how he develops empathy towards them. An example of this would be when Rick witnesses the bounty hunter Phil Resch, kill or “retire” an android named Luba Luft. After witnessing this, Rick feels empathic towards her and other innocent androids. He even considers quitting his job as a bounty hunter (Dick 136). Later within the novel, after Rick is assigned to kill three androids and in response purchases a goat. Within the novel’s universe, animals are scarce due to a third world war and radiation. A way for humans to measure empathy is by owning an animal. Rick’s purchasing of a goat represents the empathy that he has developed for androids, he explains this more in detail when he says, “Yes I retired three andys […] I had to buy this […] Something went wrong today; something about retiring them. It wouldn’t have been possible for me to go on without getting an animal” (Dick 171). This passage demonstrates the transformation of Rick’s character and his empathy; in the beginning, he lacked empathy for androids as it was believed that they lacked empathy themselves and thus were not human. By the middle and towards the end of the novel, he develops empathy towards androids especially those who do not pose a threat towards humans.

In the same way that innocent androids are being targeted and profiled by law enforcement in Dick’s novel, African Americans are being profiled and targeted by police officers. On April 12^th, 2015 in Baltimore Maryland, a 25-year old African-American man named Freddie Gray was taken into custody by six police officers. While in custody, he received a severe spinal injury that required immediate medical attention. Unfortunately, Freddie Gray went into a coma and died a week after his arrest. His death was ruled as a homicide by the medical examiner’s office, yet none of the six officers involved in his death were found guilty. This is one of my many cases in which African- Americans have died due to police brutality. From Michael Brown’s death in Ferguson, Missouri in 2014, to the shootings of Alton Sterling and Philandro Castile in 2016. This is not the first time in history in which they are tensions between African Americans and law enforcement, as historian Heather Ann Thompson points out in Dara Lind’s Vox article, The Ugly History of Racist Policing in America points out, “Nationally, it suggests that we haven’t learned nearly enough from our history. Not just 1917, and all the riots that happened in 1919 and 1921- but much more specifically from the ‘60s. Because of course, this is exactly the same issue that generated most of the rebellions of the 1960s. In 1964, exactly 50 years ago, Philadelphia, Rochester, and Harlem were all touched off by the killing of young African Americans” (Lind 1). The way that innocent African Americans are being profiled and targeted by law enforcement is parallel to how androids within Dick’s novel are targeted by bounty hunters. There have been many cases in which an African-American has been killed at the hands of law enforcement for trivial acts such as selling cigarettes, having a broken taillight, wearing a hoodie, or selling CDs. Despite these trivial acts, some police officers profile African-Americans as dangerous and as a threat, solely because of their skin color and the stereotypes that come along with it. Furthermore, when these cases of murder are taken into the judicial system, there is rarely a case in which the police officer(s) have been found guilty. This situation is parallel to the situation in Dick’s novel, in which androids are automatically profiled and labeled as dangerous, solely because of their race and the misconceptions that come along with it. When an android is killed or “retired”, there is little to empathy from society saying that committing such an act is wrong, it is justified because androids, in general, are perceived as a threat.

Police brutality amongst African-Americans has prompted many activists and protestors to create the saying “Black Lives Matter”. This statement, however, has been misunderstood by third parties. It has been misinterpreted into meaning that only black lives matter and that everyone else’s lives do not matter. Due to this misinterpretation, the counter phrase “All Lives Matter” has been created. The phrase “Black Lives Matter” however, does not mean that no one else’s lives matter, yet it is a response to how African-Americans are treated within the judicial system and American society itself. John Perazzo, author of the article The Profound Racism of ‘Black Lives Matter: The Black Panther Movement Reincarnated, explains the meaning and significance of the phrase, Perazzo states:

“Emphasizing the permanence of America’s depredations, BLM maintains that: (a) our nation’s “corrupt democracy” was originally “built on indigenous genocide and chattel slavery and “continues to thrive on the brutal exploitation of people of color”; (b) “the ugly American traditions of patriarchy, classism, racism, and militarism” pervade every aspect of our society; (c) “structural oppression” still “prevents so many from realizing their dreams”; and (d) blacks in the U.S. are routinely “de-humanized” and targeted for “extrajudicial killings…by police and vigilantes in our “white supremacist system. You see, “Black Lives Matter” means a whole lot more than just “Black Lives Matter” (Perazzo 1).

Through this statement, Perazzo points out the significance of the saying “Black Lives Matter”, it emphasizes the history of blacks and their hostile treatment within America, from slavery, to Jim Crow, to lynching, all the way up to today’s epidemic of police brutality amongst African-Americans. While it is true that all lives do matter, it does not rectify the reality that African-Americans are more subjected towards brutality and harsh treatment by law enforcement, oppression, and racism in a white supremacist society. The phrase “All Lives Matter” does not take this reality into account, it lacks consideration or empathy towards the African-American community.

These problems with the African-American community are parallel to the problems that the protagonist Rick Deckard and androids face in Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep. Rick’s occupation as a bounty hunter can be compared to the occupation of a police officer or law enforcement. His job is to kill or “retire” androids, including those who have not committed any crime unless he is unauthorized to do so. As the novel progresses, Rick begins to question the morality of his job killing androids, especially those who have not committed any crime against society or humans. This part of the novel can be compared to law enforcement and police brutality amongst African-Americans, especially those who have not committed any severe crime. In the beginning, Rick views androids as malicious and threatening. His perception of androids can be compared to how some police officers view minorities such as African-Americans; they view African-Americans as violent, threatening, or aggressive, and thus need to take violent action when it is not necessary. In Dick’s novel, when an android is killed or “retired” there is little to no justice for them as they are not considered human beings. This situation is parallel to how bias the judicial system is for African-Americans, it is a rare case for when a police officer is found guilty of unlawfully murdering an African-American. During the 16^th and 17^th centuries, African-Americans were considered inferior, primitive, and uncivilized compared to Europeans/Caucasians solely because of their skin color or other physical features, they were not considered human beings. This idea still lingers in the minds of racists Americans and some police officers, sometimes justifying the murder of innocent African-Americans. In the same way that androids were dehumanized by bounty hunters in Dick’s novel, African-Americans are being dehumanized by law enforcement.

In order to resolve the epidemic of police brutality amongst African-Americans, it is best to teach people about the concept of empathy, which is when one puts themselves into someone else’s shoes in order to understand their point of view. Third parties with misconceptions about “Black Lives Matter” must learn about its meaning, significance, and its ties to African-American history. Furthermore, it is imperative that society learns from history and how it affects the conditions of the present. The history of African-Americans within America can explain the condition(s) of the African-American community. Slavery, institutionalized racism, segregation, and hostile treatment from law enforcement all contribute to the epidemic of police brutality amongst African-Americans. Learning how to be more empathetic, however, does not occur unless people are willing to learn. People must be willing to learn how to develop empathy; they must be willing to put themselves in another person’s shoes in order to understand their perspective on an issue. In the article, Emphasizing 101, author Allie Grasgreen discusses Capital University’s experiment to determine whether empathy can be taught. Grasgreen follows assistant professor of psychology, Sara H. Konrath who states, “It is unrealistic to expect students to become more empathetic if they aren’t actually committed to the idea. In other words, they have to have the desire to change” (Grasgreen 1). This comment can be applied to people learning about the social injustices amongst African-Americans and other minorities. In order to develop empathy towards them and call for social change, they must be willing to do so. People must understand the oppression that African-American and other minorities experience in a white supremacist society.

Aside from learning from history, it is also recommended that those who are being taught empathy read more fiction novels. Studies have shown that reading fiction novels tend to increase one’s empathy skills as they are able to sympathize with the character(s) and identify their emotions. The skills of sympathizing and identifying other people’s emotions can then be applied to the real world. According to the article, Reading Books and Watching Films Makes You Kinder in Real Life, Lea Surugue discusses the psychological studies of reading fiction. Reading fictional books and watching movies can help one develop empathy, she supports her claim when she writes, “Some studies have shown that fiction can even make you feel empathy for people who live very different lives than you so long as you begin identifying with them on a basic human level […] This suggest that fictional characters enable readers to imagine what it might be like to be in other people’s situations, even if they are of a different sex, ethnic origin, or nationality” (Surugue 1). In other words, reading novels and watching films can aid in teaching someone empathy, as there can be fundamental themes within these novels or films that be applied to the real world. As a result, a person is able to feel empathy for others and understand them on a basic human level. An example of this would be Phillip K Dick’s novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep and the issue regarding police brutality within America. In Dick’s novel, androids are being profiled and murdered despite some androids such as Luba Luft being innocent and not committing any crime. This issue regarding race and profiling is parallel to African-Americans being targeted by police officers, even though in most cases they have not committed a severe crime. In this example, fiction has drawn a parallel or similarity between its universe and a social issue within the real world. It is teaching a skill, empathy, that can be applied to issues within the real world, such as police brutality amongst African-Americans and Black Lives Matter versus All Lives Matter.

What defines our humanity is our ability to emphasize with others at a basic human level. We have the innate ability to connect with others and see from their point of view regardless of whether or not we have shared similar experiences with others. We must improve our empathy, however, in order to resolve issues affecting society, and one of the societal issues that require empathy is the unjust murders of African-Americas within the United States.

Works Cited

Dick, Philip K. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? New York: Del Ray Books, 1968. Print.

Lind, Dara. “The Ugly History of Racist Policing in America.” Vox. Vox Media, 07 July 2016. Web. 11 Oct. 2016. <http://www.vox.com/michael-brown-shooting-ferguson-mo/2014/8/19/6031759/ferguson-history-riots-police-brutality-civil-rights>.

Perazzo, John. “The Profound Racism of ‘Black Lives Matter'” Frontpage Mag. Frontpage Mag, 22 June 2015. Web. 11 Oct. 2016. <http://www.frontpagemag.com/fpm/257808/profound-racism-black-lives-matter-john-perazzo>.

Grasgreen, Allie. “Empathizing 101.” Inside Higher Ed. Inside Higher Ed, 24 Nov. 2010. Web. 11 Oct. 2016. <https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2010/11/24/empathy>.

Surugue, Lea. “Reading Books And Watching Films Makes You Kinder In Real Life.” International Business Times RSS. International Business Times, 19 July 2016. Web. 11 Oct. 2016. <http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/reading-books-watching-films-makes-you-kinder-real-life-1571434#annotations:_MOsQlpyEeaiesf9ed4wVw>.

Disability and Humanity

Every day, more and more people come into a disability. Whether they’re born with an extra chromosome, develop anxiety from the stresses of the world, or needing to amputate a limb due to an injury; disability is present all around us today. With this omnipresence of disability, one would think that deformities and disabilities would be generally accepted. That assumption would be wrong in our current society. In today’s community, disability is viewed as an outlier, a deviation from the norm (Davis 6). If someone were to walk by a man in a wheelchair on the street, they would stare and gawk as though his incapability to walk made him a freak of nature; anything but a human being. But, the disabled are still people. They can empathize with others, they can still function in society in many different ways, and they can contribute to the world around them. Better yet, they can want to contribute to the world that they live in to make meaning of their existence. If they lack the ability to do so, there are programs that can teach and rehabilitate the disabled to help them to learn for the very first time or relearn skills that would allow them to do what they can to pitch into their society. Our differences o not make us any more or less human. Being different is a part of being human.

A part of being human is the ability to empathize with others. Empathy follows any and every tragedy in one way or another. Tim Recuber points out that empathy is what drives “efforts at social justice”. Recuber notes a personal experience following the Orlando shooting at the Pulse nightclub. “I experienced an intense form of empathy for the victims and their families… I read the news from a position of safety and security, but still felt that empty pit in my stomach…” (What Becomes of Empathy?). Tim sno relations nor any connections to anyone impacted by the shooting and yet his heart goes out toward the victims and their families. Why? Because he is a full functioning human being? No. Because he is a human being.

Philip K. Dick defines being human by characters’ ability to empathize in Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep. In the novel, androids are disguising themselves as humans. The only way to tell the ever advancing technology that is the Nexus-6 line of androids from humans is their ability to empathize, or lack thereof. An examination called the Voight-Kampff Empathy Test would be given to those suspected of being an android via a series of questions designed to trigger one’s empathy. If one were to fail the examination, they were assumed to be an android. But sometimes, a “special” would fail the exam (Dick).

“Specials” of Dick’s world in Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep are those that have been impacted by the radiation. They are considered “disabled” because they have become genetically defective from their exposure to the radiation. Their intelligence may be deteriorated or other such abnormalities can develop, thus a medical examination will label them as a “special” (Dick). In today’s society there are numerous conditions where one’s ability to empathize is diminished such as Narcissistic Personality Disorder or sociopathic tendencies but they can go unnoticed in society when managed properly. Recuber explains that being able to identify with other humans creates a special connection, a bond, between all humans, no matter their physical distance (What Becomes of Empathy?). A sense of understanding develops across the miles of land and sea.

However, there is no sense of understanding in Dick’s fictitious world between the specials and those who remain unaffected by the radioactive dust. Specials are portrayed as outcasts due to their tainted genetics, below average IQ scores, and on occasion, an inability to empathize. These specials are sterilized and no longer have the opportunity to immigrate to the radiation free colonies on Mars. The specials may be below average in terms of intelligence but they are still people. Isidore, a special in Dick’s novel, can still function in society well enough to support himself. He held a job for a time and his “condition” was only evident through a stutter. An open display of being human by empathizing in Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep is to care for an animal. Isidore, for a short period of time, cared for a spider and was mortified when his companion began to mutilate it. Yes, Isidore the special, the disabled, doesn’t conform to the norm of society but he is still a functioning asset of the human population.

Those who face disablement may not view their impairment as a disability but rather as a minor difference. Lennard Davis opens his chapter on “Constructing Normalcy” by emphasizing that “the ‘problem’ is not the person with disabilities; the problem is the way that normalcy is constructed to create the ‘problem’ of the disabled person” (Davis 3). Sunaura Taylor has arthrogryposis and she has adapted to her condition in many ways. While she is wheelchair bound she can still function in society, just with a different approach than those who are not “disabled”. Her joints do not work normally so she has trouble picking things up but that does not stop her. When she goes to a coffee shop, she can pick up her cup with her mouth since she doesn’t have the necessary ability to do so with her hands. She can also ask for assistance to bring her cup to her table or she could get a tool that could help her carry things (Examined Life).

There are many other prevalent disabilities in today’s society; blindness and deafness are just two of the many conditions. Those who have issues with their hearing or vision can get implants and surgeries to correct their “problems” or they can learn to adapt to their conditions. The people with hearing impairments can learn to read lips instead of relying on their auditory sense. Those with vision impairments can learn to read by touch and to navigate their world by sound and touch by developing a skill similar to echolocation.

Many people believe that the disabled couldn’t possibly contribute to the world but they are wrong. Those who are blind could become exemplary telephone operators or a position that involves the use of touch and hearing to be completed effectively. Those who are deaf could become fantastic visual editors or writers. The disabled can always learn to take their disability and turn the side effects into a positive. They can “develop abilities that other people lack” and thus they can balance out the disadvantages of their condition with these abilities (Bognar 47).

There are an almost infinite amount of different forms of rehabilitation and treatment for different handicaps across the globe. People can be taught to walk on prosthetics and can learn how to formulate speech; basic skills necessary to navigate in today’s society. Those who can’t do or learn these sorts of tasks are often looked down upon because they are “different”; they are defective. Having a disability shouldn’t impair one’s ability to be a human being and contribute to society but rather it should change the approach to the contribution. Isidore was an exemplary human being in Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? who does his best to take part in his community. Being human is about doing your best to be an asset to society and to always strive to be a better person.

The disabled are still people, whether they are emotionally, mentally, or physically handicapped. While they are technically classified as people, they are still viewed as different, as not normal; as sub-human. Lennard Davis says in “Constructing Normalcy” that the problem is not the person but rather the way that normalcy is defined in context to the ideal in society (4). What Davis is saying is that the concept of the norm is what is labeling the person as a problem, as different. The person is still considered a human being but they are different; an outlier on the bell curve of the human norm (6). Davis references that “deviations mor or less great from the [average] have constituted ugliness in body as well as vice in morals and a state of sickness with regard to the constitution” (5). So, this concept of the norm is what sets apart those with disabilities or differences from the average person.

Being human involves a cognitive decision on whether or not to try. It is up to the individual to employ their ability to contribute to their society. Greg Bognar points out that disability can impact quality of life and not just be a mild inconvenience that can be overcome. There are medical conditions that can cause constant agonizing pain, making life seem not worth living (46). This stigma does not come from the outside source of society but from within the disabled person. Bognar goes on to acknowledge possible arguments such as the disabled not feeling at a disadvantage and that it is those who do not share the condition that consider the disabled as afflicted. He also describes how those facing disability can adapt to their disability. With this acknowledgment, he goes on to differentiate that some conditions cannot be adapted to but all disabilities can be adjusted to (46-47). Bognar concludes that disability is simply another part of human characteristics such as gender and race. Just like of characteristics that cannot be controlled, there is discrimination and prejudice towards the disabled just as there is towards females and other similar case (48).

Bognar never hit back on the point that the disabled may feel that their disability isn’t just a mild setback but rather something not worth living through. There is still a conscious decision that has to be made in this regard. The disabled person is allowing their self to lose hope for a possible treatment or cure for their condition. They can hold onto that hope and can lead by example for those with similar or the same condition or they can give up and cast another shadow over the debilitating condition that they had been fighting. Treatment is a two way street. There is the one way for the doctors and the physical treatment and the other way is for the disabled to keep heart. If the disabled person just accepts that they are going to die then their body will not fight as hard to survive and the attempts at treatment may prove less effective. These tough decisions and actions are all a part of being human. Choosing to fight through and adapt to the disability is just the same as fighting through a hardship in everyday life.

The disabled may be viewed as deviations from the norm and thus different and unapproachable. Empathy bridges the gap between all human beings. If an able bodied person were to actively empathize with their fellow humans, they’d be able to understand their plight and make the world more welcoming to the disabled. The disabled will not be viewed as freaks of nature but as the human beings that they are. Their efforts to participate and contribute to society will become more welcome and the world would be much better at understanding its patrons. The world will be better with the disabled’s different abilities and a stronger community will be forged. Humanity and empathy will unite the world into one.

Works Cited

Bognar, Greg. “Is Disability Mere Difference?” J Med Ethics, vol. 42, no. 1, 2015, pp. 46-49.

Davis, Lennard J. “Constructing Normalcy: The Bell Curve, the Novel, and the Invention of the Disabled Body in the Nineteenth Century.” The Disability Studies Reader, Routledge, New York, 2006.

Dick, Philip K. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Ballantine Books, 1996.

“Examined Life – Judith Butler & Sunaura Taylor 720p.avi.” YouTube, uploaded by 黃小竹, 6 Oct. 2010, www.youtube.com/watch?v=k0HZaPkF6qE.

Recuber, Tim. “What Becomes of Empathy?” Cyborgology, 20 July 2016. www.thesocietypages.org/cyborgology/2016/07/20/what-becomes-of-empathy/. Accessed 1 Sept. 2016.

Is Technology Destroying Our Humanity?

As mentioned in Philip K. Dick’s novel, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, it was rather difficult to distinguish and keep track of whether a character was an android. The modern world is almost completely dominated by multiple forms of technology. Throughout Dick’s novel, Dick allows the reader to differentiate characters between android and human based solely on the characteristics that they embody. Humans are considered normal since they possess characteristics such as the ability to feel empathy towards others, value animals, and have enough intelligence in order to pass the IQ test as well as their ability to reproduce. It is empathy that decides the life or death of a character based on their response to the Voigt-Kampff test. If you did not react to a question within a certain amount of time, you were considered an android. However, the line between humans and androids drew closer when Rachel Rosen’s reaction to the Voigt-Kampff test hinted that she felt empathy towards other androids. Furthermore, it is realized that androids are able to feel empathy and that empathy could no longer be the deciding factor between humans and androids.

Almost every aspect of our lives is done through it. People constantly text on their phones, use social media through their computers, and talk to voice recordings when trying to fix a problem after calling a company. This generation is so obsessed with technology, that many of us would not know how to act without it. Technology today helps us perform day-to-day tasks in a simpler way and accomplish a lot more in shorter periods of time than just ten years ago. As we become more and more dependent on it, it continues to develop in intricacy. Soon, humans might not be needed to perform the same tasks that they do now due to technology’s demand. Tools that have been installed in factories have replaced human workers as early as 1760, when the Industrial Revolution began because they are deemed stronger, faster, and smarter than the average human. As technological features, as well as medical advances, continue to grow, it may become increasingly more difficult to separate the human features from the technological features. An example would be if a soldier that repeatedly keeps getting injured on the battlefield. He/she loses one arm, the other arm, then both legs only to have each of them replaced by mechanical arms and legs.

If the soldier were to continue replacing his body parts with technological parts, at what point can the soldier be no longer classified as human? There is now a sense of uneasiness when you call a company and talk to whomever you think is a human worker only to find out it was an automated prompt. What if robots and humans become so much alike that we would be unable to distinguish the two races apart?