Category: Blog

International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) – (1880s-Present)

Technology was booming in the 1880s. It was as though everybody and their mama had some new invention to usher in. Some inventions failed, some inventions succeeded. Several companies with successful inventions would go on to merge as one: Computing – Tabulating – Recording Company (C-T-R) (Chronological History of IBM). In four years–under Thomas J. Watson’s leadership– C-T-R would double its revenue (Chronological History of IBM). Moving into the 1920s, having experienced immense growth and undertaking new activities, C-T-R decided it had outgrown its name (Chronological History of IBM). Thus on Valentine’s day, 1924, C-T-R changed to International Business Machines Corporation (Chronological History of IBM). The reason for the name change was that the corporation was expanding globally: “During Watson’s first four years… expanded the company’s operations to Europe, South America, Asia and Australia” (Chronological History of IBM). IBM not only survived during the 1930s Great Depression, it thrived, becoming one of the first corporations to provide: group life insurance, survivor benefits, and paid vacation (Chronological History of IBM).

Moving into the 40s, IBM was vital to the U.S. war efforts (Chronological History of IBM). It manufactured over three dozen different types of weaponry and “establish[ed] a fund for widows and orphans of IBM war casualties” (Chronological History of IBM). In the second half of the 40s, IBM introduced the first machines “that could execute long computations automatically”–calculators (Chronological History of IBM).

It should be noted that IBM’s activities during WWII are controversial to this day. IBM technology was used by Nazis in the undertaking of the Holocaust (Ramasastry). For its alleged complicity in the genocide, IBM has been taken to court numerous times (Ramasastry). IBM denies aiding and abetting Nazis, saying “that by this time this occurred, the Nazis had already taken over Dehomag — so that IBM had no control over operations there, or over how Nazis used IBM machines” (Ramasastry). In 2001, IBM donated $3 million to a German Holocaust Fund, making it clear however that it does not admit liability (Ramasastry).

The 50s saw IBM’s creation of the first computers, used for “business applications such as billing, payroll and inventory control”–basic functions modern computers (Chronological History of IBM). IBM further changed the game in 1959, by introducing “random access”, which “could retrieve data stored on any of the 50 spinning disks” without having to painstakingly go through each piece of data (Chronological History of IBM). Further success was gained in the 60s–IBM made more revenue by offering hardware individually, as opposed to just in bundles (Chronological History of IBM). Secondly, computers were made to be faster and capable of storing more (Chronological History of IBM).

Floppy disks, Consumer Transaction Facilities (predecessors of ATMs), and supermarket checkout stations were introduced in the 70s (Chronological History of IBM). IBM became a part of daily life in the 80s with the creation of the IBM Personal Computer, which was compact enough for the home, small business, or school (Chronological History of IBM).

In the 90s, IBM faced and overcame two technological revolutions: the PC revolution and the client/server revolution (Chronological History of IBM). IBM, which had had “long-standing customer relationships” with clients such as the U.S. military, was forced to adapt to millions of customers–everyday folks who purchased PCs (Chronological History of IBM). Another issue with having millions of customers was that they demanded to be linked to the IBM servers–large computers “that served data and applications” (Chronological History of IBM). These problems were addressed by streamlining IBM’s operations (Chronological History of IBM).

Nothing has slowed down for IBM. Since the 2000s, IBM has won numerous awards for technological innovations and has acquired more patents (8,088) than any other company (24 Years of IBM Patent Leadership) .

C-T-R, later IBM, was born out of the government’s need to find an effective way to take a census (Chronological History of IBM). When several companies stepped up to the plate to solve the census problem, they realized consolidation rather than competition was the best way to advance technology and earn revenue (Chronological History of IBM). As arguably the most prolific company of all time, IBM still tries to outdo itself to this day. For example, in the near future IBM’s Chef Watson app, which invents new recipes (Cooking with Chef Watson, I.B.M.’s Artificial-Intelligence App), may save us all from our mundane cooking habits.

IBM’s revolutionary business practices can be recognized in companies across every field. Apple, for example, with its employee benefits, forward-thinkingness, product diversification, and customer service (Chronological History of IBM) is a mirror image of the foundation IBM has laid. IBM was one of the first companies to taut its internationality, thus inspiring others to do the same. Further, IBM technology is ubiquitous. If you’ve ever played with Nintendo Wii, you’ve played with something thats been made possible by IBM (IBM’s 45nm SOI microprocessors at core of Nintendo Wii U).

Sources:

“1889” – “2008”. IBM Archives: 1889-2008. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Feb. 2017.

“24 Years of IBM Patent Leadership.” IBM Press room RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Feb. 2017.

Kleeman, Alexandra. “Cooking with Chef Watson, I.B.M.’s Artificial-Intelligence App.” The New Yorker. The New Yorker, 21 Nov. 2016. Web. 25 Feb. 2017.

Leung, Isaac. “IBM’s 45nm SOI microprocessors at core of Nintendo Wii U”. Electronicsnews.com, 8 June 2011. Web. 23 Feb. 2017.

Pugh, Emerson W. Building IBM : Shaping an Industry and Its Technology. The MIT Press, 1995. History of Computing. Web. 23 Feb. 2017.

Ramasastry, Anita. “A Swiss court allows Gypsies’ Holocaust lawsuit to proceed.” CNN. Cable News Network, 8 July 2004. Web. 25 Feb. 2017.

Viscovery. IBM Partner World, 9 Mar. 2015. Web. 23 Feb 2017.

Typewriter (1860s-1980s)

Various inventors in multiple countries had been experimenting with typing machines in many forms for many years by the time Christopher Latham produced the first version of what would become recognized as the modern typewriter in 1867 (Dugan). His prized machine would later evolve into the various incarnations of the famous Remington branded typewriter.

The early typewriters had many obstacles to overcome before becoming commonplace in offices and homes in the 1930s. The largest obstacle to be overcome wasn’t economic or technological, it was social. People did not like the idea of typing on a machine when they had been writing by hand their whole life. (Monaco 214) All sorts of cultural norms and etiquette were threatened by the typewriter. Even the United States government was opposed to typewriter usage due to the bureaucratic issues that it would impose as a result of all the prior rules requiring document usage, storage, transfer and maintenance to be done by hand.

One of the most important social influences the typewriter had on the modern world involved women in the workplace. During the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, women began to flood into offices along with typewriters (BBC). Typewriters were actually marketed towards women, with advertisements featuring smiling, independent women in the office. Until this point in history, men had hired boys at cheap rates to do tedious work like typing and filing. The boys however still required supervision. Women were able to be hired and trained to type for cheaper than a grown man and could work independently. Women were valued for their attention to detail and organizational skills, something the younger boys also lacked (BBC).

The first female typists were called “type-writer girls” and were at first kept separate from the men in the workplace. Separate bathrooms, break-rooms and offices were provided for them. Work conditions for the women were typically poor. Their rooms often had very little ventilation, lighting and space. Their hours were long and wages were low (BBC). Though the typewriter provided a strong foothold and entrance way into the workplace for women, it did not provide equality.

Eventually the superior speed, neatness and potential of typewriters was realized and the appearance of documents was transformed forever. Once the initial skepticism was overcome people actually became deeply attached to their typewriters, custom painted options were offered and rare models collected (Dugan). The machines themselves became personal and considered works of art despite the association of early models with bland, bulky and utilitarian appearances.

Legible documents were able to be quickly created, copied and distributed allowing for massive improvements in efficiency and organization. During the typewriters era, letters were the main way that social, commercial and fiscal communication was sent. By allowing for letters to be typed, the spread of information was able to drastically increase. Typing or keyboarding classes were offered to train typists and to maximize potential efficiency (Monaco 215).

The shift key on a modern keyboard actually came from typewriters where it worked to “shift” the baskets of keys from their uppercase to lowercase versions. Since holding down the shift key meant physically raising a basket which was fairly difficult for longer sections of text, the “caps-lock” key was invented to hold the desired basket in position (Daskeyboard). Typewriters are also responsible for the now standardized QWERTY layout of keyboards. This format goes all the way back to the first Remington’s that were produced (Dugan).

The lowered prices, increased availability and accessibility of computers with word processing, printing and emailing capabilities were responsible for the downfall of the typewriter in the 1980s. The increased use of email to share information made paper communication seem somewhat obsolete. The typewriter was one of the last truly analog processors, requiring no electricity, just ink, paper and a writer. (Holt)

Though typewriters in developed countries were phased out by the 1980s, many underdeveloped countries still rely on typewriters as a reliable source of word-processing.  Typewriters are still common and very important in parts of Africa and South America that do not have consistent access to electricity or computers. (Holt)

Bonus fact: February is actually national typewriter month.

Sources:

“The arrival of women in the office.” BBC News. BBC, 25 July 2013. Web. 28 Feb. 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-23432653

Dugan, Bryan. “A Brief History of the Typewriter.” Mental Floss. N.p., 18 Feb. 2013. Web. 22 Feb. 2017. http://mentalfloss.com/article/48912/brief-history-typewriter

“Typing Through Time: Keyboard History | Das Keyboard Blog.” Daskeyboard. N.p., 22 July 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2017. http://www.daskeyboard.com/blog/typing-through-time-the-history-of-the-keyboard/

Holt, Gerry. “Five reasons to still use a typewriter.” BBC News. BBC, 20 Nov. 2012. Web. 28 Feb. 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-20410364

Monaco, Cynthia. “The Difficult Birth of the Typewriter.” Harvard Business Review, vol. 67, no. 2, Mar/Apr89, pp. 214-215. EBSCOhost.

Image:

Nienhouse, Tyler. Still Life (35mm) – Typewriter. 2010. Flickr. Web. 22 Feb. 2017.

Computer Mouse (1961-Present)

A keyboard and mouse; this common scene is familiar to most of us. It’s hard to believe that there was once a time when mice and keyboards were not always paired. That time ended 1961 when Douglass Engelbart invented the “X-Y position indicator for display system”, due in part to this intimidating name, the mouse wasn’t commercially released until 1981 when Xerox began to sell it with their personal computers (Latson). The rest as they say, is history.

Prior to the invention of the mouse, computers were limited to use in laboratories and other technical professions. The only way for professionals to interact with system software was through the keyboard. Specific commands were required to preform on-screen actions, this meant anyone using a computer needed a fairly significant technical background.

The average person’s ability to use a computer is severely limited without a mouse. Command line functions are not taught to students and are no longer viewed as being necessary or desired. The mouse evolved hand-in-hand with the GUI (Graphic User Interface, think click-able Windows icons), making the usage of computers much more user friendly. It opened up access to information for tons people and allowed for mainstream use of the internet. (Atkinson 49) It’s impact is immense yet subtle, using a mouse is second nature to most now.

The mouse received its contemporary name from its early appearance. The first computer mice had the wire coming out of their back, rather then the front, like on modern ones (Atkinson 48). With a little bit of imagination the two buttons may look like ears, the scrolling button looks like a nose and a rear exiting wire might look like a tail.

Though its basic function has remained the same, the modern mouse is highly refined compared to its predecessors. The first mice were heavy, large and made of wood. They had a tracking ball underneath rather than a laser underneath to detect movement. (Atkinson 47) Some of you may remember using this style when you were little. Dust and other household/office debris would accumulate underneath and have to be cleaned out eventually. Newer mice are cheap to produce, much lower maintenance, highly ergonomic and track on just about any surface thanks to lasers and other modern technology.

Around 1985 when the computer mouse hit first began to become mainstream. Apple’s Macintosh computer system shipped with a mouse and keyboard included and brought what was once NASA technology to homes and offices everywhere. Continual improvements have taken place since then with variations of mice having anywhere from one to four buttons, wireless capability and scroll buttons (CNN Staff).

The computer mouse remained a desktop fixture for a very long time now, its impressive how close modern refinements remain to the original concept. Its design consistency is a testament to Engelbart’s genius. (Atkinson 59) The computer mouse is one of the best examples of “if it ain’t broke don’t fix it”. 56 years later the mouse is just starting to receive some competition. The smartphone/tablet revolution introduced touch-screen technology to the masses and some newer gadgets feature voice-recognition software, allowing for instructions to be dictated. The mouse is still going strong, but may finally be on its way out.

Sources:

Atkinson, Paul. “The Best Laid Plans Of Mice And Men: The Computer Mouse In The History Of Computing.” Design Issues 23.3 (2007): 46-61. Business Source Complete. Web. 21 Feb. 2017.

Latson, Jennifer. “Why The Computer Mouse’s Inventor Isn’t The Big Cheese.” Time.Com (2015): N.PAG. MAS Ultra – School Edition. Web. 21 Feb. 2017. http://time.com/3831359/computer-mouse-history/

Staff, CNN. “Computer mouse inventor Douglas Engelbart dies.” CNN. Cable News Network, 7 July 2013. Web. 22 Feb. 2017. http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/03/tech/mouse-inventor-dies/

Image:

Black and White Cup Hand Mug. N.d. Pexels. Comp. Unsplash. Web. 21 Feb. 2017.

 

Bookbinding (1447-Present)

Bookbinding (1447-Present)

Bookbinding, was able to expand not only the means of collecting/storing documents, but the creation of mass print. During the 1st century, all writing was kept on clay tablets, or cloth. The turn of the century was the printing of religious codices on vellum. The next 1400 years crafted the art of bookbinding commonly by monks. By hand, these monks would copy and recopy entire libraries from their perfected craft creating a high demand. (POWIS, “History of Bookbinding). The arrival of the Gutenberg printing press in 1447 however, brought the books into the hands of the public. Making paper from wood dropped paper costs and bindery automation in the 19th century propelled manufacturing. A signature process style called “Smyth Sewing” (“History of Bookbinding’) primarily for bookbinding. The next 30 years (roughly 1868-1898) was the creation of machines mainly for making hard-covers.

Perfect binding meant using a hot melt adhesive to glue the spine of the book while at the same time placing the front cover to complete it. A German publisher named Albatross Books experimented with the idea in 1931.

Perfect binding at the time however, wasn’t used very often. The more conventional way was to sew the spines. It may have been less expensive to use glue, but it didn’t have the strength to hold books together for an extended period of time. The books to mainly use this method were ones that were light service (like a manual), and easy to dispose (Shatzkin, “Perfect Binding).

The next ten years, saw the whole world adopting the format and now reading it. As the world moved out of war times and technology began advancing, there was a wave of new binding systems for offices with a high demand of new documents. They were two step processes of punching and loading (“History of Binding”). The late 1980’s brought in a machine still used today that is fast and easy. The Fastback Binding Machine, created by Kevin Parker, the founder of POWIS. His company was able to bring binding into all and any work environment in the country (“History of Binding”).

The impact bookbinding had was major. It allowed for the collection of information to become accessible to everyone, for any purpose. Binding aided in education with mass production of textbooks and course readings. The aiding of personal construction, whether it’s a house, electronics, etc. And especially the aiding of general knowledge to be shared with people close to you, or a total stranger. It changed communication. Books will always be a timeless necessity because not only that of recent move back from digital to physical, but anything can be massed produced and stored somewhere for future reference.

 

Works Cited

“Powis: The History of Bookbinding.” Powis: The History of Bookbinding. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Feb. 2017.

Shatzkin, Leonard. “Perfect binding.” U.S. Patent No. 3,840,254. 8 Oct. 1974.

Photo

Coldwell, Doug. Open Book, 8 july, 2008, Web Feb 23 2017

 

 

 

 

Inevitability

“There is absolutely no inevitability as long as there is a willingness to contemplate what is happening” (pg.25)

This particular quote caught my attention while reading The Medium is the Massage because of how true it is for today’s political climate. The quote reminds me of the phrase “history is destined to repeat itself” which has been true numerous times over the centuries and people theorize will be true again today with the election of President Trump. Many people are comparing Trump’s election to that of Adolf Hitler in the 1930’s in the way that he was popular and fairly well liked and his political ideas were seen as positive things at first, sort of like a story character who we like at first but as their intentions are revealed. I’m not saying that I agree with these people one way or the other, however they raise good points particularly with Trump’s racial views. If people aren’t willing to take a moment, step back, and think about the decisions Trump is making, we may end up reliving one of the darkest moments in history.

People and their Media

“All media are extensions of some human faculty- psychic or physical.” (McLuhan, 26)

Are we as a society constantly trying to come up with new ways of improving ourselves? In his book, McLuhan mentions that wheels are supposed to be an extension of our feet and clothing is an extension of our skin. That makes a lot of sense. We need clothes to protect ourselves from the elements and without the wheel there would be transportation as we know it. But, what about the computer? Or newer media and technology that we use everyday? At this point in human history, we are stepping away from creating technology for survival purposes. The main objective for invention seems to be for leisure purposes. Do we really need social media to survive on planet Earth? No. It’s very useful for communication with other people, but no one will die if Facebook suddenly disappeared (I hope). Or could it be that technology is needed to help people survive in a social sense now? If a person used their Facebook account to prove to employers that they are a mature and responsible human being, that person may or may not land a job they were applying for. If another person was traveling around different parts of China but they still wanted to spend time with friends in America, they could instant message or video chat.

Oh McLuhan!

If I could choose only one quote from McLuhan’s book it would be, “Today’s child is growing up absurd, because he lives in two worlds, and neither of them inclines him to grow up.” (McLuhan, 1996)

This is my favorite quote by McLuhan because the words he chooses to use are strong and directly conveys a message. He uses the word “absurd” to suggest that there is an unreasonable or illogical way in which children are expected to “grow up.” I agree with McLuhan because from a young age, essentially from birth, we process information from our surroundings. However, we are taught what is important or valuable to live in the realm of societal standards, but they often contradict reality itself. For example, a child turns on the TV to find find angry protesters, police brutality, local shootings and the President of the United States belittling women. The same child goes to school and learns math, science, art and literature, how to share and be kind to others. None of which ever attempts to recognize these other experiences as truth. Instead, they are labeled, “politics” when it is really much more than that. This is what McLuhan alludes to when he said, “..he lives in two worlds.” Television has become a doorway into multiple dimensions of stories and realities, different or similar to our own.

I can relate to this quote because, as a child, I remember being told not to grow up, “too fast.” Then I would see things on TV that suggested a different message. I also remember being told, “Don’t believe everything you see on TV,” but I have also come to understand things may not always appear as they seem, even in real life. There are social constructs that are very real that we were all aware of but could not see or experience first hand until viral sharing broke the internet. How do we separate illusion from reality? I think our realities are mere illusions of what we put out into the world. We create ways to distort our realities, not the other way around. Just as an object has no use or meaning until we give it a name, and we use it, then it becomes a tool. Things do not have an impact on an environment, they have an impact on people, people’s executive processing functions, and their understanding on the external world.

Using a Clay Tablet

  1. When I attempted to write on a clay tablet, I had to not only think about what I wanted to write, but I also had to consider how I was going to have something legible appear on the clay. Whenever I have to type anything on the computer, I only need to worry about what I want to communicate and not how the computer is making the letters appear on the screen.
  2. If the technology I have to use for writing is something that I’m familiar with, then the writing process itself is fairly simple, and I can write just about anything I feel like. When I have to use technology I never use (like a block of clay and a stick), I become less concerned with the content of my writing and will focus all of my energy towards producing any writing at all.
  3. If the writing itself is very simple in appearance, like if you had to write a series of vertical lines, you could just apply a stick to the clay. But, if you want to write out words onto the clay, you might want to consider all of the different ways you could use that stick and which technique could be the best for getting the job done. You might even decide that the stick isn’t good enough and you have to upgrade like you would with a modern computer.
  4. If the technology isn’t used well, it can be difficult to read any text that is created. I have no idea how people from ancient civilizations were able to survive using clay tablets. What I first wrote on the tablet wasn’t legible enough. I had to go back over each letter, pressing and scraping, until I was confident that other people could actually read it.

Propaganda, Media, and Programming

“The environment as a processor of information is propaganda. Propaganda ends where dialogue begins. You must talk to the media, not to the programmer. To talk to the programmer is like complaining to a hot dog vendor at a ballpark about how badly your favorite team is playing.” (McLuhan 142)

The media allows for us to create conversation with one another to make sure the information is correct and checked. Many times what we see or look at has some sort of agenda attached to it instead of giving the masses the information we all should have. As soon as the angle is out there it attracts certain people it knows it’s going to hit.

With the many outlets and forms of media we have now, it doesn’t take much effort or time to find the right people or sources to get the correct point across.

The programmers are the people creating the outlets that put out the propaganda. The processors of information allow for the propaganda to continue to be visible in the media. But the media has more people that are able to interrupt the transmissions through dialogue that hopefully finds the attention it needs to end the flow of propaganda.

Log-on, Teach-in, Learn-Out : The Molecule is the Message

 

From the very start of The Medium is the Massage I was very engaged by McLuhan’s early, almost ergodic literary style. The mirrored and upside down page sections, the integration of images and text and the anti-establishment messages all had a distinct 1960s psychedelic feel. Some of the visuals seem almost straight out of the animated Beatle’s movie, Yellow Submarine. You can almost hear the Beatles and the Doors playing in the background as you flip through the pages. Despite the fun and engaging imagery, McLuhan does have many serious points to convey. While riffing on the perceptions of the youth and their regard for education, McLuhan writes:  

“We now experience simultaneously the dropout and the teach-in. The two forms are correlative. They belong together. The teach-in represents an attempt to shift education from instruction to discovery, from brainwashing students to brainwashing instructors…The dropout represents a rejection of nineteenth-century” technology as manifested in our educational establishments.” (101)

After reading the above quote I couldn’t help but immediately think of Timothy Leary’s iconic 1960s one-liner: “Tune in, turn on, drop out.” McLuhan’s words seemed too close to Leary’s to be coincidental so I decided to do a little research. I began scouring the internet for any possible evidence of either McLuhan’s own use of psychedelics, or a possible connection to Timothy Leary.

books

 

While I couldn’t find any evidence of McLuhan’s own drug use, I did find a surprisingly dense amount of information regarding his relationship with Timothy Leary. In fact, Leary actually credits McLuhan for inspiring him to coin his catchphrase of “Tune in, turn on, drop out.”! Leary was a huge fan of McLuhan’s ideas regarding media and social influence and saw him as someone to look up to, a team-mate against the establishment or status-quo of the 1960s, a crusader for awareness and technological enlightenment. The ideas of perception and media as extensions of consciousness resonated strongly with Leary’s own psychedelic explorations and commentary on the media. Leary viewed himself as being on the same wavelength of medium awareness as McLuhan.

Learymc

Though references to Leary, Beatles movies and Jim Morrison may seem dated, McLuhan’s take on education still remains relevant. Aspects of the “teach-in” movement seem to still be occurring in classrooms from the elementary to college level. Talk of shifting education from memorization and presentation to a process of discovery by students still holds weight today. We are learning in the aftermath of this idea. The clay tablet assignment last week as a prime example of this teaching style and its integration into classrooms. By having students figure out their own ways in which to roll, inscribe and share their own clay messages the role of education is almost completely reversed from the style used decades ago. Back then a teacher probably would have only lectured to students about the process of inscribing clay.

By having his book taught in classrooms, I’d say that McLuhan was successful in his claim that “Education must shift from instruction, from imposing of stencils, to discovery-to probing and explorations and to the recognition of the language of forms.” (100) Media literacy is now an actual course subject, something McLuhan would have pushed for. Students are taught to recognize the way media subtly massages their lives. The medium is now widely and popularly recognized as an important part of anymessage, a message that may vary based on which molecule’s were ingested by the audience.

 

ergodic definition from:

http://www.articleworld.org/index.php/Ergodic_literature

(reminded me slightly of House of Leaves, not sure if The Medium is the Massage is truly ergodic though as it is non-fiction?)

photos and info on McLuhan-Leary relationship from:

http://boingboing.net/2014/06/03/timothy-leary-and-marshall-mcl.html

background on Leary from:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Leary#Influence