Tag: timeline

International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) – (1880s-Present)

Technology was booming in the 1880s. It was as though everybody and their mama had some new invention to usher in. Some inventions failed, some inventions succeeded. Several companies with successful inventions would go on to merge as one: Computing – Tabulating – Recording Company (C-T-R) (Chronological History of IBM). In four years–under Thomas J. Watson’s leadership– C-T-R would double its revenue (Chronological History of IBM). Moving into the 1920s, having experienced immense growth and undertaking new activities, C-T-R decided it had outgrown its name (Chronological History of IBM). Thus on Valentine’s day, 1924, C-T-R changed to International Business Machines Corporation (Chronological History of IBM). The reason for the name change was that the corporation was expanding globally: “During Watson’s first four years… expanded the company’s operations to Europe, South America, Asia and Australia” (Chronological History of IBM). IBM not only survived during the 1930s Great Depression, it thrived, becoming one of the first corporations to provide: group life insurance, survivor benefits, and paid vacation (Chronological History of IBM).

Moving into the 40s, IBM was vital to the U.S. war efforts (Chronological History of IBM). It manufactured over three dozen different types of weaponry and “establish[ed] a fund for widows and orphans of IBM war casualties” (Chronological History of IBM). In the second half of the 40s, IBM introduced the first machines “that could execute long computations automatically”–calculators (Chronological History of IBM).

It should be noted that IBM’s activities during WWII are controversial to this day. IBM technology was used by Nazis in the undertaking of the Holocaust (Ramasastry). For its alleged complicity in the genocide, IBM has been taken to court numerous times (Ramasastry). IBM denies aiding and abetting Nazis, saying “that by this time this occurred, the Nazis had already taken over Dehomag — so that IBM had no control over operations there, or over how Nazis used IBM machines” (Ramasastry). In 2001, IBM donated $3 million to a German Holocaust Fund, making it clear however that it does not admit liability (Ramasastry).

The 50s saw IBM’s creation of the first computers, used for “business applications such as billing, payroll and inventory control”–basic functions modern computers (Chronological History of IBM). IBM further changed the game in 1959, by introducing “random access”, which “could retrieve data stored on any of the 50 spinning disks” without having to painstakingly go through each piece of data (Chronological History of IBM). Further success was gained in the 60s–IBM made more revenue by offering hardware individually, as opposed to just in bundles (Chronological History of IBM). Secondly, computers were made to be faster and capable of storing more (Chronological History of IBM).

Floppy disks, Consumer Transaction Facilities (predecessors of ATMs), and supermarket checkout stations were introduced in the 70s (Chronological History of IBM). IBM became a part of daily life in the 80s with the creation of the IBM Personal Computer, which was compact enough for the home, small business, or school (Chronological History of IBM).

In the 90s, IBM faced and overcame two technological revolutions: the PC revolution and the client/server revolution (Chronological History of IBM). IBM, which had had “long-standing customer relationships” with clients such as the U.S. military, was forced to adapt to millions of customers–everyday folks who purchased PCs (Chronological History of IBM). Another issue with having millions of customers was that they demanded to be linked to the IBM servers–large computers “that served data and applications” (Chronological History of IBM). These problems were addressed by streamlining IBM’s operations (Chronological History of IBM).

Nothing has slowed down for IBM. Since the 2000s, IBM has won numerous awards for technological innovations and has acquired more patents (8,088) than any other company (24 Years of IBM Patent Leadership) .

C-T-R, later IBM, was born out of the government’s need to find an effective way to take a census (Chronological History of IBM). When several companies stepped up to the plate to solve the census problem, they realized consolidation rather than competition was the best way to advance technology and earn revenue (Chronological History of IBM). As arguably the most prolific company of all time, IBM still tries to outdo itself to this day. For example, in the near future IBM’s Chef Watson app, which invents new recipes (Cooking with Chef Watson, I.B.M.’s Artificial-Intelligence App), may save us all from our mundane cooking habits.

IBM’s revolutionary business practices can be recognized in companies across every field. Apple, for example, with its employee benefits, forward-thinkingness, product diversification, and customer service (Chronological History of IBM) is a mirror image of the foundation IBM has laid. IBM was one of the first companies to taut its internationality, thus inspiring others to do the same. Further, IBM technology is ubiquitous. If you’ve ever played with Nintendo Wii, you’ve played with something thats been made possible by IBM (IBM’s 45nm SOI microprocessors at core of Nintendo Wii U).

Sources:

“1889” – “2008”. IBM Archives: 1889-2008. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Feb. 2017.

“24 Years of IBM Patent Leadership.” IBM Press room RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Feb. 2017.

Kleeman, Alexandra. “Cooking with Chef Watson, I.B.M.’s Artificial-Intelligence App.” The New Yorker. The New Yorker, 21 Nov. 2016. Web. 25 Feb. 2017.

Leung, Isaac. “IBM’s 45nm SOI microprocessors at core of Nintendo Wii U”. Electronicsnews.com, 8 June 2011. Web. 23 Feb. 2017.

Pugh, Emerson W. Building IBM : Shaping an Industry and Its Technology. The MIT Press, 1995. History of Computing. Web. 23 Feb. 2017.

Ramasastry, Anita. “A Swiss court allows Gypsies’ Holocaust lawsuit to proceed.” CNN. Cable News Network, 8 July 2004. Web. 25 Feb. 2017.

Viscovery. IBM Partner World, 9 Mar. 2015. Web. 23 Feb 2017.

Typewriter (1860s-1980s)

Various inventors in multiple countries had been experimenting with typing machines in many forms for many years by the time Christopher Latham produced the first version of what would become recognized as the modern typewriter in 1867 (Dugan). His prized machine would later evolve into the various incarnations of the famous Remington branded typewriter.

The early typewriters had many obstacles to overcome before becoming commonplace in offices and homes in the 1930s. The largest obstacle to be overcome wasn’t economic or technological, it was social. People did not like the idea of typing on a machine when they had been writing by hand their whole life. (Monaco 214) All sorts of cultural norms and etiquette were threatened by the typewriter. Even the United States government was opposed to typewriter usage due to the bureaucratic issues that it would impose as a result of all the prior rules requiring document usage, storage, transfer and maintenance to be done by hand.

One of the most important social influences the typewriter had on the modern world involved women in the workplace. During the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, women began to flood into offices along with typewriters (BBC). Typewriters were actually marketed towards women, with advertisements featuring smiling, independent women in the office. Until this point in history, men had hired boys at cheap rates to do tedious work like typing and filing. The boys however still required supervision. Women were able to be hired and trained to type for cheaper than a grown man and could work independently. Women were valued for their attention to detail and organizational skills, something the younger boys also lacked (BBC).

The first female typists were called “type-writer girls” and were at first kept separate from the men in the workplace. Separate bathrooms, break-rooms and offices were provided for them. Work conditions for the women were typically poor. Their rooms often had very little ventilation, lighting and space. Their hours were long and wages were low (BBC). Though the typewriter provided a strong foothold and entrance way into the workplace for women, it did not provide equality.

Eventually the superior speed, neatness and potential of typewriters was realized and the appearance of documents was transformed forever. Once the initial skepticism was overcome people actually became deeply attached to their typewriters, custom painted options were offered and rare models collected (Dugan). The machines themselves became personal and considered works of art despite the association of early models with bland, bulky and utilitarian appearances.

Legible documents were able to be quickly created, copied and distributed allowing for massive improvements in efficiency and organization. During the typewriters era, letters were the main way that social, commercial and fiscal communication was sent. By allowing for letters to be typed, the spread of information was able to drastically increase. Typing or keyboarding classes were offered to train typists and to maximize potential efficiency (Monaco 215).

The shift key on a modern keyboard actually came from typewriters where it worked to “shift” the baskets of keys from their uppercase to lowercase versions. Since holding down the shift key meant physically raising a basket which was fairly difficult for longer sections of text, the “caps-lock” key was invented to hold the desired basket in position (Daskeyboard). Typewriters are also responsible for the now standardized QWERTY layout of keyboards. This format goes all the way back to the first Remington’s that were produced (Dugan).

The lowered prices, increased availability and accessibility of computers with word processing, printing and emailing capabilities were responsible for the downfall of the typewriter in the 1980s. The increased use of email to share information made paper communication seem somewhat obsolete. The typewriter was one of the last truly analog processors, requiring no electricity, just ink, paper and a writer. (Holt)

Though typewriters in developed countries were phased out by the 1980s, many underdeveloped countries still rely on typewriters as a reliable source of word-processing.  Typewriters are still common and very important in parts of Africa and South America that do not have consistent access to electricity or computers. (Holt)

Bonus fact: February is actually national typewriter month.

Sources:

“The arrival of women in the office.” BBC News. BBC, 25 July 2013. Web. 28 Feb. 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-23432653

Dugan, Bryan. “A Brief History of the Typewriter.” Mental Floss. N.p., 18 Feb. 2013. Web. 22 Feb. 2017. http://mentalfloss.com/article/48912/brief-history-typewriter

“Typing Through Time: Keyboard History | Das Keyboard Blog.” Daskeyboard. N.p., 22 July 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2017. http://www.daskeyboard.com/blog/typing-through-time-the-history-of-the-keyboard/

Holt, Gerry. “Five reasons to still use a typewriter.” BBC News. BBC, 20 Nov. 2012. Web. 28 Feb. 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-20410364

Monaco, Cynthia. “The Difficult Birth of the Typewriter.” Harvard Business Review, vol. 67, no. 2, Mar/Apr89, pp. 214-215. EBSCOhost.

Image:

Nienhouse, Tyler. Still Life (35mm) – Typewriter. 2010. Flickr. Web. 22 Feb. 2017.

Computer Mouse (1961-Present)

A keyboard and mouse; this common scene is familiar to most of us. It’s hard to believe that there was once a time when mice and keyboards were not always paired. That time ended 1961 when Douglass Engelbart invented the “X-Y position indicator for display system”, due in part to this intimidating name, the mouse wasn’t commercially released until 1981 when Xerox began to sell it with their personal computers (Latson). The rest as they say, is history.

Prior to the invention of the mouse, computers were limited to use in laboratories and other technical professions. The only way for professionals to interact with system software was through the keyboard. Specific commands were required to preform on-screen actions, this meant anyone using a computer needed a fairly significant technical background.

The average person’s ability to use a computer is severely limited without a mouse. Command line functions are not taught to students and are no longer viewed as being necessary or desired. The mouse evolved hand-in-hand with the GUI (Graphic User Interface, think click-able Windows icons), making the usage of computers much more user friendly. It opened up access to information for tons people and allowed for mainstream use of the internet. (Atkinson 49) It’s impact is immense yet subtle, using a mouse is second nature to most now.

The mouse received its contemporary name from its early appearance. The first computer mice had the wire coming out of their back, rather then the front, like on modern ones (Atkinson 48). With a little bit of imagination the two buttons may look like ears, the scrolling button looks like a nose and a rear exiting wire might look like a tail.

Though its basic function has remained the same, the modern mouse is highly refined compared to its predecessors. The first mice were heavy, large and made of wood. They had a tracking ball underneath rather than a laser underneath to detect movement. (Atkinson 47) Some of you may remember using this style when you were little. Dust and other household/office debris would accumulate underneath and have to be cleaned out eventually. Newer mice are cheap to produce, much lower maintenance, highly ergonomic and track on just about any surface thanks to lasers and other modern technology.

Around 1985 when the computer mouse hit first began to become mainstream. Apple’s Macintosh computer system shipped with a mouse and keyboard included and brought what was once NASA technology to homes and offices everywhere. Continual improvements have taken place since then with variations of mice having anywhere from one to four buttons, wireless capability and scroll buttons (CNN Staff).

The computer mouse remained a desktop fixture for a very long time now, its impressive how close modern refinements remain to the original concept. Its design consistency is a testament to Engelbart’s genius. (Atkinson 59) The computer mouse is one of the best examples of “if it ain’t broke don’t fix it”. 56 years later the mouse is just starting to receive some competition. The smartphone/tablet revolution introduced touch-screen technology to the masses and some newer gadgets feature voice-recognition software, allowing for instructions to be dictated. The mouse is still going strong, but may finally be on its way out.

Sources:

Atkinson, Paul. “The Best Laid Plans Of Mice And Men: The Computer Mouse In The History Of Computing.” Design Issues 23.3 (2007): 46-61. Business Source Complete. Web. 21 Feb. 2017.

Latson, Jennifer. “Why The Computer Mouse’s Inventor Isn’t The Big Cheese.” Time.Com (2015): N.PAG. MAS Ultra – School Edition. Web. 21 Feb. 2017. http://time.com/3831359/computer-mouse-history/

Staff, CNN. “Computer mouse inventor Douglas Engelbart dies.” CNN. Cable News Network, 7 July 2013. Web. 22 Feb. 2017. http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/03/tech/mouse-inventor-dies/

Image:

Black and White Cup Hand Mug. N.d. Pexels. Comp. Unsplash. Web. 21 Feb. 2017.

 

Bookbinding (1447-Present)

Bookbinding (1447-Present)

Bookbinding, was able to expand not only the means of collecting/storing documents, but the creation of mass print. During the 1st century, all writing was kept on clay tablets, or cloth. The turn of the century was the printing of religious codices on vellum. The next 1400 years crafted the art of bookbinding commonly by monks. By hand, these monks would copy and recopy entire libraries from their perfected craft creating a high demand. (POWIS, “History of Bookbinding). The arrival of the Gutenberg printing press in 1447 however, brought the books into the hands of the public. Making paper from wood dropped paper costs and bindery automation in the 19th century propelled manufacturing. A signature process style called “Smyth Sewing” (“History of Bookbinding’) primarily for bookbinding. The next 30 years (roughly 1868-1898) was the creation of machines mainly for making hard-covers.

Perfect binding meant using a hot melt adhesive to glue the spine of the book while at the same time placing the front cover to complete it. A German publisher named Albatross Books experimented with the idea in 1931.

Perfect binding at the time however, wasn’t used very often. The more conventional way was to sew the spines. It may have been less expensive to use glue, but it didn’t have the strength to hold books together for an extended period of time. The books to mainly use this method were ones that were light service (like a manual), and easy to dispose (Shatzkin, “Perfect Binding).

The next ten years, saw the whole world adopting the format and now reading it. As the world moved out of war times and technology began advancing, there was a wave of new binding systems for offices with a high demand of new documents. They were two step processes of punching and loading (“History of Binding”). The late 1980’s brought in a machine still used today that is fast and easy. The Fastback Binding Machine, created by Kevin Parker, the founder of POWIS. His company was able to bring binding into all and any work environment in the country (“History of Binding”).

The impact bookbinding had was major. It allowed for the collection of information to become accessible to everyone, for any purpose. Binding aided in education with mass production of textbooks and course readings. The aiding of personal construction, whether it’s a house, electronics, etc. And especially the aiding of general knowledge to be shared with people close to you, or a total stranger. It changed communication. Books will always be a timeless necessity because not only that of recent move back from digital to physical, but anything can be massed produced and stored somewhere for future reference.

 

Works Cited

“Powis: The History of Bookbinding.” Powis: The History of Bookbinding. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Feb. 2017.

Shatzkin, Leonard. “Perfect binding.” U.S. Patent No. 3,840,254. 8 Oct. 1974.

Photo

Coldwell, Doug. Open Book, 8 july, 2008, Web Feb 23 2017

 

 

 

 

Timeline Assignment

Together as a class you will create an interactive timeline of publishing invention and innovation. Each of you will be responsible for adding 3 items to the timeline. Here are some examples to choose from, but you may suggest others:

Hieroglyphics – Shanice
Papyrus- Shanice
Vellum – Grace
The codex – Ryan R
Paper – Grace
The Greek alphabet
Folios – Marcus
The monastic scriptoria
Stationers
Moveable type – Juwan
Bookbinding – Juwan
Steam Press – Cory
Gutenberg Press
Pencil – Grace
Quill and ink – Lanett
Newspapers -Cory
The Republic of Letters – Juwan
Typewriter – Ryan R
Copyright – Lanett
The computer mouse – Ryan R
Creative Commons – Marcus
IBM – Marcus
OCR
Email
GNU Operating System
Apple II
Windows – Cory
MOSAIC
ARPANET
American Online (AOL)
Hypertext
Project Gutenberg – Lanett
TEI – Shanice
Blogs

Once you have selected three inventions, you will compose a timeline entry that includes:

  • A date range and title.
  • A thorough description, with MLA citations, that provides the history, impact, and context for this item. This should be between 300 and 500 words.
  • An image, video, or map that best represents this item. You must have citation information for each item, and they all must be free to use or share.

Here is our spreadsheet: https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1C4GPoW7NjVvPy-WZo5pAOmBA_PBQCFN__Z7UapBdVXc/edit?usp=sharing

Note: Don’t change the column headers, don’t remove any columns, and don’t leave any blank rows in your spreadsheet.

Here are guidelines: https://timeline.knightlab.com/docs/using-spreadsheets.html

Here is an example: https://timeline.knightlab.com/examples/user-interface/index.html

This is worth 30 points = 20% of your grade.

You will post extended drafts (between 500 and 700 words), with media, for each entry by 2/23 on our course site. Use tag “timeline” and category “blog.” You will present your entries on 2/28.