Tag: narration

The Library of Alexandria

The Library of Alexandria, the epitome of the idea of a “Universal Library,” is a well-known ancient world wonder that has no evidence of existing (Haughton). Some believe it to be a myth that the ancient library was destroyed in a fire, losing all of the works it contained. If the library was still standing today, it would be able to provide much valuable information and manuscripts that could help understand civilizations and cultures from thousands of years ago.

Alexandria is a city that, much like many others, was named after Alexander the Great, conqueror. Alexander helped build a global empire unlike any other before his time that allowed people to see that there was far more than their own culture. But it wasn’t until after his death in 323 BCE and the reign of his general, Ptolemy I Soter, that the idea of a “Universal Library” that could hold the knowledge from every corner of the world came forward. The idea came undoubtedly from a man named Demetrius of Phalerum, formerly of Athens where he was appointed governor until the return of Democracy. Fleeing to Alexandria for refuge, he persuaded Ptolemy I to build a library containing a copy of every book the world had to offer (El-Abbadi; Haughton).

The Temple of the Muses, also referred to as the Museum, was home to botanical gardens, laboratories, and the Library (Haughton). Ptolemy II, son to Ptolemy I, completed the Royal Library, the final piece of the Temple of Muses. There were stories of creative ways of filling the Library with knowledge. One was every ship docked in Alexandria was searched for books, and once found, they would be taken into custody to determine whether o r not they had any value. If found worthy to keep, they would make a copy to return to the owner along with compensation (El-Abbaddi). Another story was how Ptolemy III acquired original works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides that resided in Athens as prized works. He convinced the governors to lend the works to be copied along with a pledge for the save return. The works were copied and then those copies were returns to Athens with the return of the pledge (El-Abbadi).  It’s said the collection of knowledge overfilled the Royal Library and a daughter library was built, creating two sites. According to a Greek writer named Callimachus, the daughter library contained about 42,800 scrolls in his life (305 BCE- 240 BCE). However, much later (around 300 CE) much higher estimations of 700,000 were given.

Then the devastation of the library by fire took place, but it’s an argument as to when the fire occurred. Many people believe Julius Caesar is to blame when he involved himself in a civil dispute between his acclaimed lover, Cleopatra, and her brother, Ptolemy XIII. Caesar occupied the city in 48 BCE and found himself surrounded by the Egyptian fleet (El-Abbadi). His men set fire to the ships, but the fire spread uncontrollably to parts of the city (Haughton). According to Plutarch, who wrote about the event, claimed that the Royal Library was destroyed in the spread of fire to the city. However, approximately three decades later, scholar and philosopher Strabo mentions a Museum that is believed to refer to the Library, hurting claims that it had been burned down by Caesar (Haughton). Alternatively, it claims he is expressing grief that such a library had been destroyed and he could not obtain the knowledge, supporting the Royal Library was gone (Al-Abbadi). It is speculated that the Royal Library was in fact destroyed, but the daughter library remained.

Nearly 400 years later, Emperor Theodosius I set out to destroy paganism, destroying the Temple of the Muses (Haughton). Eyewitnesses testify that the building was destroyed down to the foundation, which was too heavy and massive to move. It’s claimed Theophilus, the bishop who led the destructive attack, ordered a Christian church be built on the remains (Al-Abbadi; Haughton). This was the second destruction which was of the second site.

The final idea of the destruction of the “Universal Library” looks to Caliph Omar in 640 CE. It is said that after capturing Alexandria, he declared, “They will either contradict the Koran, in which case they are heresy, or they will agree with it, so they are superfluous,” and had the collection of 4,000 manuscripts burned (Haughton; Musharraf) . However, this theory did not come about until near the 13th century and is often considered a flourished myth that arose from political tensions at the time. Since there is strong and supported evidence that both sites were destroyed prior to the Islamic invasion, this theory, once a controversial idea, has long been denied by scholars.

Unfortunately, there are no physical remains of the city. No archaeological evidence has been found of the foundation of the building or its contents. A great fountain of information was destroyed, and the rest of the world will forever mourn the great loss of culture and knowledge.

Works Cited

El-Abbadi, Mostafa. “Library of Alexandria.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 8 Feb. 2019, www.britannica.com/topic/Library-of-Alexandria#ref334082. Accessed 6 March 2019.

The author, Mostafa El-Abbadi, is a professor at the University of Alexandria, Egypt. He claims that the Library of Alexandria was the first of its kind, a “universal library” that would hold all the knowledge and culture the world had to offer from every corner of the globe. His writing contributes to Britannica which is a helpful source to all looking for scholarly information, particularly helpful to students, high school and older. He remains firm in his belief that the library was a great achievement that was destroyed before the Islamic reign and therefore, Caliph Omar was not responsible for the destruction. He provides detailed information, and the article contains internal links to names and places one may not be familiar with. He supports the idea there were two separate events that destroyed the two sites individually and is a great, reliable source.

Haughton, Brian. “What Happened at the Great Library of Alexandria?” Ancient History Encyclopedia, 2011, https://www.ancient.eu/article/207/what-happened-to-the-great-library-at-alexandria/. Accessed 6 March 2019.

Brian Haughton is an author and researcher on ancient civilizations and monuments as well as a qualified archeologist. He aims to educate students and scholars alike. His article is from the perspective of an archeologist so he refuses to completely believe the Library is gone forever but rather waiting to be discovered. While most of his evidence appears to be concrete, he brings up a few minor speculations that other sources prove wrong or incorrect. However, the article provides a good summary of the major events that took place and the details around them that anyone could walk away with a good understanding.

“Library of Alexandria – Documentary : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming.” Internet Archive, archive.org/details/Library.of.Alexandria-Documentary. Accessed 11 March 2019.

Musharraf, Muhammad Nabeel. “Destruction On Library Of Alexandria || Australian Research Journals : Muhammad Nabeel Musharraf : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming.” Internet Archive, 1 Jan. 1970, archive.org/details/DestructionOnLibraryOfAlexandria/page/n7. Accessed 6 March 2019.

Muhammad Musharraf’s work is archived with the Australian Islamic Library. His work sets out to prove the innocence of Caliph Omar in the destruction of the Library in 7th century CE. The primary audience is other scholars who claim the Caliph is responsible despite the fact most scholars have abandoned the thought. Although his work is almost entirely around the false accusations, he still provides valuable and detailed information about the events leading to the destruction of both sites of the great

 

Media: https://archive.org/details/Library.of.Alexandria-Documentary

Stationery Printing

Stationery printing helped shrink the world by making it more efficient by helping to spread new ideas across the globe.

Stationers were originally developed by the Egyptians. They developed the form of parchment, which was made from very thin animal skins. Only the wealthy could afford parchment paper at the time. It also had its drawbacks; the parchment was limed but not tanned like leather. As a result, the parchment easily split and did not handle humidity. So the Egyptians turned to papyrus (“Papyrus”). Papyrus held up better than parchment because it did not mold and held up better in humidity. Papyrus would go on to be used throughout Europe in the 12th century. But papyrus was very costly because it had to be imported (James “History”).

Ts’ai Lun is credited for inventing paper. He utilized the inner bark of a mulberry tree and combined this with bamboo fibers (James “History”). He then mixed water with the bark and fibers, pounded them, and left them on a woven cloth for the water to drain. Eventually, the Chinese replaced wood and bamboo with linen fibers. The linen fibers were higher in quality (“Papyrus”).

Johannes Gutenberg is credited with inventing the printing press. His machine eliminated the process of writing by hand as a reproduction of documents could be handled more proficiently. This created a substantial demand for paper (James “History”).

By the early 1800s, the United States had over 180 paper mills. This created hundreds of jobs such as stationery printers. As the USA became more proponent through mining, oil drilling, and lumber processing, there was an increase in wealth. As a result of the increase in wealth, the desire for supplies of a higher quality standard of printing became higher. The stationery consisted of many different items such as monogrammed paper. A monogrammed paper was used for letters, notes, and announcements. People used monogrammed paper to request wedding invitations, birth announcements, and other documents (James “History”).

As technological advances continued through the 1900s in the United States, stationery printing became more proponent. One way stationery printing adapted to the technological advances was color printing. Stationery printing expanded to produce greeting cards, color paper, event announcements, sales documents, and calling cards. By the mid-19th century, stationery printers were sophisticated enough to produce their documents faster and efficiently. Stationery printers began to produce brochures, flyers, and business cards (James “History”).

Today, stationery printers are now considered printing companies. They offer full-service printing, including digital processing (“Papyrus”). Marketing plans are dependent on printed materials produced by stationery printers. Consumers also use stationery printers to produce albums, books, signage, tablets, cards, magazines, and school supplies.

In the modern world, stationery printing comes in various forms.

One form of stationery printing is letter printing. Letter printing is one of the oldest forms of stationery printing. It has been used as early as the 15th century for printing pamphlets, books, pictures, and other printed documents. The process of letter printing consists of using molds of letters and designs along with ink to press them onto thick paper, leaving the paper indented. However, letter printing is not frequently used as it is one of the most costly printing methods (Ashleigh, “7 Types”).

Another form of stationery printing is offset printing. Offset printing, also referred to as flat printing, is similar to digital printing; it creates a flat but detailed end result. The process is done by stamping the image onto the paper using ink on a metal, paper or rubber plate. Flat printing is considered very resourceful because it can be used with several different types of paper (Ashleigh, “7 Types”).

Engraving is a form of stationery printing that, like stationery printing, has been around for centuries. Engraved printing is made when ink is applied to etched indents on copper plates known as “dies”. Paper is then placed over the dies and thousands of pounds of pressure press the paper into the etched design. The etched design transfers the ink and raises the paper, thus engraving it. Engraving is the most expensive form of stationery printing, but it is very precise and recognizable in its printing (Ashleigh, “7 Types”).

Thermography creates a textured end-product that is meant to be like engraving. During the process, wet ink is used to create designs. The powder is then applied to paper. The printer attaches the powder to the ink with resin, then heats the stationery and cools it to allow the powder and resin to set into the paper (Ashleigh, “7 Types”).

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Apple II

Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs started Apple in their family garage in 1976. The name Apple came from an apple orchard Steve Jobs worked at when he became a vegetarian in India.

Their first computer was the Apple I. It was a $25 MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor running at 1 MHz (MegaHertz) on a single-circuit board with 256 bytes of ROM. However, it lacked a case, keyboard, or display and was priced at $666.66. The need to purchase a separate keyboard caused the Apple I to have low sales. As a result, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak decided to remodel the Apple I and call it a new computer: the Apple II.

The Apple II was developed in 1977 be Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs. It was Apple’s first mass produced microcomputer product. The purpose of the computer was to enhance their previous creation, the Apple I. The introduction of the Apple II at the West Coast Computer Faire in June 1977 sparked the boom in personal computer sales, establishing Apple a formidable marketing company in the world of computers.

Steve Jobs also believed that appearance mattered to convince the consumer into purchasing a product. Steve wanted to make the Apple II more presentable and easily marketable to boost the sales for a product that should not be difficult to use. The Apple II was eventually advertised as a “complete, ready to use computer”. The advertisement convinced consumers that computers could be something they did not have to be a businessman or an accountant to work on.

The Smithsonian National Museum of American History states the Apple II worked by using a “MOS 6502 chip for its central processing unit”. New features in the Apple II that the Apple I lacked were color display, eight internal expansion slots, and a case with a keyboard. The Apple II was one of the first computers that featured a color display and to have a built-in BASIC (Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) language, so it was ready to run as soon as the customer placed it on the table.

The most prominent feature of the Apple II was its eight expansion slots. Up to that point, no other computer had this kind of flexibility or expansion possibilities. The top of the computer is not even attached to the keyboard. It lifts off with little effort, allowing simple access to the system motherboard and expansion slots. Dozens of different expansion cards were made by Apple and other manufacturers to add to the Apple II’s capabilities. These capabilities included memory expansion, floppy disk controllers, PASCAL and CP/M emulator cards, parallel, serial, and SCSI cards, processor accelerators, and video cards. The success of the Apple II enabled Jobs and Wozniak to move the headquarters of Apple from their garage to an office in Cupertino.

Apple Computer delivered its first Apple II system for $1295. By October 1979, 500,000 units of the Apple II were sold, trumping the sales of the Apple I, and smashed all competitors of the computer market. By 1982, the Apple II had sold 750,000 units. Due to the number of sales, Apple was forced to get large-scale production.

What made the Apple II successful was the new spreadsheet program known as the VisiCalc. Like Microsoft Excel, VisiCalc added columns and rows of data and instantly gives users results. This caused the Apple II to become successful for business companies because they were able to calculate sales at a faster rate than a handheld calculator.

Two updates followed the Apple II: The Apple II Plus in 1979 and the Apple IIe in 1983.

The Apple II series was finally replaced by Apple Machintosh in 1993. However, the Apple II did not end immediately. It continued well after Apple’s introduction of the Macintosh because it was the company’s main source of revenue. The Apple II is one of the most successful and recognizable computers in history. The marketing campaign that Steve Jobs headed to emphasis the low price for a highly valued product made the computer popular for consumers and businesses, causing it to become the first computer widely used across American schools and colleges, operating as the de facto standard computer for education.

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